From: Weiten: Psychology Themes and Variations, 5th ed.
PLEASE NOTE THAT ALL THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION IS INTENDED ONLY TO HELP GUIDE AND ORGANIZE YOUR STUDY OF THE COURSE MATERIAL. IT PRESENTS MANY OF THE HIGHLIGHTS, BUT IS NOT INTENDED AS A LIST OF RESTRICTIONS FOR THE CONTENT OF THE COURSE EXAMINATIONS
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Terms: Be able to define and give examples of all Key Terms listed at the end of the chapter.
Study Questions:
1.Define
memory and the basic processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
2.Describe
the process and role of sensory memory.
3.Describe
the characteristics and limitations of short-term memory and contrast them
with long-term memory.
4.Describe
the serial-position effect and discuss its likely causes.
5.Discuss
chunking and category clustering as techniques for enhancing memory processes.
6.Describe
how context cues, mood, and state of consciousness are related to retrieval.
7.Describe
the levels of processing theory.
8.Describe
procedural and episodic memory.
9.Describe
the various measures of forgetting.
10.Discuss
the roles of proactive and retroactive interference in forgetting.
11.Describe
the biological bases of memory.
12.Describe
the common memory disorders.
13.Describe
techniques for improving memory skills.
14.Summarize
evidence demonstrating the reconstructive nature of memory.
15.Discuss the creation of false and/or repressed memories.
1.Memory
2.Human-Computer
Memory Analogy
1.Encoding: How information gets into memory.
1.Human: Forming a memory code.
2.Computer:
Entering date through a keyboard
2.Storage: How information is maintained in memory.
1.Human: Maintaining information in memory over time
2.Computer:
Saving data to a file on the hard disk
3.Retrieval: How information is pulled out of memory?
1.Human: Remembering, recovering information from memory stores
2.Computer:
Opening a file and displaying it on the monitor
3.Encoding
1.Attention
2.Levels of processing
3.Enrichment
4.The Role
of Attention
1.Focusing
awareness
1.Selective attention
(1)Selection of input
(2)Filtering:
early or late?
2.Models
of Selective Attention
1.Early-selection models
(1)Input
is filtered before meaning is processed.
2.Late-selection models
(1)Filtering
occurs after the processing of meaning.
5.Levels
of Processing
a.Incoming information is processed at different levels
i.Levels are related to meaning
ii.Deeper
processing yields longer lasting memory codes
b.Encoding levels
i.Structural
= shallow
ii.Phonemic
= intermediate
iii.Semantic = deep
6.Encoding
Levels
7.Enrich
Encoding
a.A
practical application of memory information
i.Elaboration
(1)Link
information you are learning to other information at the time of encoding
ii.Visual Imagery
(1)Link
information you are learning to a visual picture at the time of encoding
iii.Self-Referent Encoding
(1)Link
information you are learning to something personal at the time of encoding
8.Three-Box Model
a.Memory
has three information stores
i.Sensory
memory holds information just long enough for a small portion to be selected
for longer storage.
ii.Short-term
memory has a limited capacity brief duration.
iii.Long-term
memory can store an “unlimited” amount of information for indeterminate periods.
9.Sensory
Memory
a.Ultra-brief storage of information in original sensory form
b.Auditory/Visual
i.Approximately ¼ second
ii.George Sperling (1960)
(1)Classic
experiment on visual sensory store
10.Short
Term Memory (STM)
a.Limited capacity
i.Magical number 7 plus or minus 2
ii.Chunking
(1)Grouping
familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit
b.Limited duration
i.About
20 seconds without rehearsal
c.Rehearsal
i.The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information
11.Study
of STM
i.Warning light
(1)Three consonants to remember, count backward by three from 379
(2)Vary time between presentation and recall
(3)Measure
how fast information is lost from STM
12.Duration
of STM
13.“Working Memory”
a. Alan Baddeley
i.Views an aspect of STM as a mental scratchpad or temporary workspace.
ii.Working memory includes three components
(1)Phonological rehearsal loop
(2)Visuospatial sketchpad
(3)Executive
control system
14.Maintenance Rehearsal
a.Constant
recitation (aloud or in thought)
15.Long-Term Memory
a.Permanent storage?
i.Flashbulb memories
ii.Recall through Hypnosis
b.Debate: are STM and LTM really different?
i.Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding
ii.Decay
vs. Interference based forgetting
16.Types
of LTM
a.Conscious
Memory
i.Explicit Memory
(1)Intentional
recall of previously learned information
ii.Prospective Memory
(1)Remembering
to perform actions in the future.
b.Implicit Memory
i.Does
not require intentional recollection
c.Episodic Memory
i.Chronologic
recollection of personal experience
d.Semantic Memory
i.General
knowledge not tied to the time when learned
e.Procedural (Nondeclarative) Memory
i.Houses
memory for actions, skills, and operations
17.A
Model of Memory
18.Elaborative Rehearsal
a.Creates long-term memories
b.Semantic elaboration
c.Organization
d.Chunking
e.Mnemonics
19.How is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory?
a.Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies
b.Schemas and Scripts
c.Semantic
Networks
20.A
Hypothetical Network of Facts
a.Small
networks of ideas such as this are probably organized into larger and larger
units and higher levels of meaning.
21.Schemas
and Scripts
a.Schemas are cognitive structures.
b.Scripts are representations of social events.
i.Scripts are schemas
ii.Cleaning
the house.
22.A
Semantic Network
a.Shorter the line linking implies a stronger the association
i.The color of the boxes represents activation of the concepts.
ii.A
network might look like this after hearing “fire engine.”
23.Mnemonics
a.Acrostics
(1)Every
Good Boy Does Fine
b.Acronyms
(1)Roy
G Biv
c.Narrative Methods
(1)Story Writing
(2)Rhymes
(Ex: “I before E, except after C…”)
d.Visual Imagery
(1)Method of Loci
(2)Keyword
Method
e.Organization of Information
(1)Hierarchies
24.Remembering
a.Information is first held by sensory memory.
b.Information selected by attention is then transferred to STM.
i.If new information is not rapidly encoded, or rehearsed, it is forgotten.
ii.If it is transferred to long-term memory, it becomes relatively permanent.
iii.But, retrieving it may be a problem.
25.Get
It Out of Memory
a.Reconstructing
memories
i.Misinformation effect
ii.Source monitoring
iii.Reality
monitoring
b.Incomplete
knowledge
i. Tip-of-the- tongue phenomenon
(1)Generate and recognize
ii.Feeling
of knowing
c.Context
and state dependence
i.The encoding specificity principle
(1)Context dependent
(2)State dependent
ii.Reinstate
the context
26.Reconstructive
Memories
a.Schemas and scripts
b.Source Monitoring
i.Misattribution of the source of information
c.Reality Monitoring
i.Based
on external events or thoughts and feelings
27.Schemas
and Scripts
28.Source Monitoring
a.Where did I learn that?
i.Misattribution
of the source of information
29.Reality Monitoring
a.Recovered Memories
i.Recovered
or False
30.Forgetting
a.Loss
of information over time.
31.Measures
of Retention
a.Recall
b.Recognition
c.Relearning
32.Recall
a.A type of memory test that requires the participant to reproduce the information without any cues
i.What
are the three major parts of the neuron?
33.Recognition
a.A memory test that requires the participant to identify previously learned information from a group of options
i.Which of the following has been associated with dreaming?
(1)SWS
(2)REM
(3)Low frequency, high amplitude EEG waves.
(4)Sleepwalking
34.Relearning
a.If
you learn something faster after forgetting it, it indicates that a trace
remained.
35. Ebbinghaus and Forgetting
a.ZEG
b.GOX
c.PAZ
d.ROJ
36.Issues in Forgetting
a.Decay
(1)Forgetting occurs because memory traces degrade with time
b.Retrieval Failure
(1)Unsuccessful recovery of information from memory stores
c.Encoding failure
(1)Information was not encoded into long-term memory
d.Consolidation failure
(1)Information is not properly stored in long-term memory
e. Motivated forgetting
(1)Purposeful forgetting (repression?).
f.Interference
(1)Forgetting
due to competition from other information
37.Interference
38.I’m
Confused
39.In
Search of the Engram
a.Biochemistry
i.Alteration in synaptic transmission
(1)Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems
(2)Protein
synthesis
b.Neural
circuitry
i.Localized neural circuits
(1)Reusable pathways in the brain
(2)Long-term potentiation
(3)Dendritic
Sprouting
c.Anatomy
i.Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
(1)Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus,
(2)Dentate
gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
40.Amnesia
41.Are There Multiple Memory Systems?
a.Implicit vs. Explicit
b.Declarative vs. Procedural
c.Semantic vs. Episodic
d.Prospective
vs. Retrospective
42.Neuroanatomy
a.Retrograde Amnesia
b.Anterograde Amnesia
i.Scoville and Milner (1957) and H. M.
ii.Consolidation
43.Memory
Drugs?
44.It
is No Good Unless You Use It
a.Adequate rehearsal
(1)Ebbinghaus
b.Minimize interference
(1)Proactive
and retroactive
c.Duplicate test conditions
(1)State
dependence
d.Engage in deep processing
(1)Conceptual learning
e.Acoustic versus visual encoding